If you've harbored the nagging suspicion Victorians were not the stuffy, pompous persons history books make them out to be, a soul-satisfying adventure awaits you: become Victorian for an evening and discover its unique pleasures for yourself. "Civility" may have escorted Victorian dancers to the ballroom door, but "pleasure" took them by the elbow and led them through an evening of dizzying dance, clever games, delightful entertainments, and a panoply of delicious food and drink.

It may be said by those who experience such an evening that Victorians understood the nature of true entertainment: that social pleasure can only be enjoyed when predicated upon social restraint.

POLITENESS: OUR DEMOCRATIC RIGHT

Prior to the Civil War, a proper man's chief aim was to become worthy of the title of "Gentleman," and a woman, that of "Lady." If one followed rules of etiquette, one became entitled to those titles. If this all sounds a bit English, please consider the fact that the ability to become a gentleman or lady was considered a democratic right in America. Not so in England, where Lord and Ladyship were denied any person born to the wrong family.

Today Americans retain the right to become ladies or gentlemen and immerse themselves in the pleasure of being treated as such and treating others as such. To that end this book provides a simple list of guidelines enabling willing participants to gain a sense of accomplishment and become aware of their own chivalrous instincts. Sometimes it only takes an evening of entertainment to change one's entire worldview. The freedom to exchange civilities, man to woman and woman to man, is usually an eye-opening experience for both parties. As for entertainment, participants in a Victorian evening soon discover the dances are simple, parlor games promise uproarious fun, and everyone looks outstanding in formal evening wear.

But why should I try to convince you? You know it is a pleasure to recreate an evening of Victorian entertainment, or you wouldn't have read this far.

GUIDE TO TRUE POLITENESS

This book is formed as a guide to those who would like to learn to entertain in true Victorian style. Like anything else in life, such an undertaking should begin in small steps and be added to, depending on one's time, resources and inclination. The chapters are arranged so that you, the organizer of such an event, may build a Victorian evening according to time and inclination. To begin, you may choose only to have a few friends over for an after-dinner party featuring Victorian finger foods or desserts. Next, you may decide to create a "Victorian Soiree" featuring food and parlor games. Perhaps you'll wait awhile before pulling out the top hat and hoops. But, when you feel ready, form a committee of interested friends, and you'll soon have the makings of a true Victorian ball.

And at every step along the way, one thing will always be certain: you and your friends are going to have decidedly good times.

In the 19th century, it was traditional to place a card on the table indicating the various foods being served. This is an especially good idea when recreating a Victorian evening, because your guests will be curious as to the nature of, say, your punch, and the word "syllabub" on the menu card is sure to at least begin to satisfy their curiosity.

Soirees and balls occasionally featured sit down dinners beforehand, but most had post-supper refreshments provided throughout the evening. A table was set aside with food and drink, and guests could wander, pluck, and carry way at will.

This table should be covered with a tablecloth, preferably linen, and set with the best of everything. Now may be a good time to invest in cloth napkins.

The centerpiece for a typical Victorian table did not include flowers until the late 19th century. In Colonial times through the mid nineteenth century, a collection of fine porcelain statuary (sometimes outfitted with bowls for nuts and fruit), or a glass centerpiece piled high with fruit or cakes was de rigeur.

But you need not rush to an antique auction house to acquire a Victorian look. A pyramid of iced cakes is easy to create, and will serve. A tower of fruit is even easier. Place a footed cake plate at table's center; place a smaller cake stand upon it, and top it with a footed candy dish or vase. The tower can be glass or porcelain, whatever you have. Fill your three-tiered centerpiece with edible fruit: grapes, strawberries, apples, dates and figs are likely candidates. Oranges, limes and lemons were less often seen in the nineteenth century, not because they were difficult to eat but because they were precious commodities.

If you'd like to take things a step further, a sugared fruit tower is a dream-like treat for guests. Before placing fruit into the centerpiece, brush each lightly with egg white and sprinkle liberally with sugar (But don't fail to throw these delicacies away when the night is overl old egg whites are rather unhealthy.)

If the fruit is only for display, fantastic and abundant arrangements that defy gravity can be created by using toothpicks. Decorative accents are to be gleaned from the garden. Ivy and oak leaves or sprigs of mint or other herbs were perfectly at home on the Victorian table. Use them to fill in your centerpiece and place them liberally along your serving plates. At Christmas, use holly or sprigs of pine or other Christmas greens.

As an aside to the following suggestions, in the 18 and 19th century, recipes were known as "receipts,"(although there were also receipts for bill of sale), while "recipes" referred to medical prescriptions.

For further consideration, note the following descriptions of foods to be had at a grande ball:

"Where it is possible, a tea-room, separate from the supper-room, is thrown open at a ball, provided with tea, frozen coffee, claret or fish-house punch, sandwiches, plain cakes, and, later in the evening, bullion and hot coffee. Where this is not possible, punch and cakes are served from a side table, at the end of a hall, and this is quite sufficient where the invited are in the habit of arriving two hours after they are asked.

The supper-room is thrown open generally at twelve o'clock. The table is made as elegant as beautiful china, cut glass and an abundance of flowers can make it. In Europe the suppers are generally cold... In our cities, they are always hot, with a few cold dishes, such as boned turkey, boeuf a la mode, chicken, and lobster salad, salmon mayonnaise and raw oysters. The host dishes are oysters stewed, fried, broiled, and scalloped, chicken sweetbread and oyster croquettes, sweetbread and green peas, terrapins and game.

... Bullion and ices are then sometimes served in the refreshment room, or passed during the cotillion, if the ball is a late one. It is not in good form to hand cigars at balls, nor to ask for anything that is not served with the supper."

Mrs. H.O. Ward, Sensible Etiquette of the Best Society (Philadelphia, 1878), Page 224

"Supper may be served continuously during the evening, or it may take place at a stated hour, twelve or one o'clock, for instance. If the latter plan is adopted, it is advisable to have punch, bouillon, and other light refreshments placed where they will be easily accessible throughout the evening. Bouillon and ices are sometimes handed among the company at intervals...

"Oysters - fried, creamed, escalloped, and raw, salads, croquettes, cold salmon served whole and handsomely ornamented, boned turkey, terrapin, birds, ices [ice creams] of the most expensive forms and varieties, such as frozen pudding, bombe glacee cafe mousse, etc., wine jellies and charlotte russee, fresh and candied fruits, bonbons, tea and coffee and endless quantities of cake, are found on the supper-tables. Champagne and other wines are usually provided; and alas! it is sometimes wiser for ladies not to visit the supper-table very late in the evening, unless they wish to run the risk of meeting there young men who have drunk more than is good for them."

Florence Howe Hall, Social Customs, (Boston, 1881), pp 133-34

Well-known parlor games such as Charades and Blindman's Bluff were generally enjoyed between dance settes at a ball or after a dinner party's fine repast. Victorians also had printed party game, such as "Conversation Cards" (a series of questions and answers to be randomly chosen and read aloud between the sexes - with hilarious results). Reproductions of original Conversation Cards - and a host of other Victorian entertainment information - are available through the wonderful website of Civil War historians Michael and Virginia Mescher: http://www.raggedsoldier.com.

A warning to fellow-historians of American social history:

Most of the offerings below were wrested from original 19th century sources, but, as previously mentioned, this is a guide to Victorian STYLE entertainment, with the result that a few recreant 20th century games may have snuck themselves on to the list.

Now, here's a list of basic games and a few riddles to get you started, as well as a list of forfeits at chapter's end (forfeits are "penalties" chosen by the game's winner to be paid by the loser).

1. Tableaux Vivant

The gentlemen re-create a famous oil painting and the ladies have to guess the title. In a proper Victorian home, there are curtains or double doors in the parlor room which create an ideal spot for theatrical presentations such as these. A variation which could include the ladies is to act out a pantomime of a fairy tale, one of Shakespeare's stories, or a particular vignette, like the marriage of Queen Victoria to Albert.

2. The Minister's Cat

Participants form a circle. Each person has to come up with an adverb to describe the cat beginning with the letter "A,", i.e., "The minister's cat is an ANGRY cat." Proceed around the circle with everyone using the letter A.

Second time around the circle, use the letter B, etc., etc. If someone states a word that does not begin with the correct letter or claims they're stumped, they must pay a forfeit (see forfeits at end of chapter).

3. Blindman's Buff (also known as, Bluff, the favorite Victorian Parlor Game of all time)

There are three versions. The first was more active and more dangerous. After several incidents of Victorians lighting themselves on fire as they bumped against candles or fell into fireplaces, the more quiet version, Statues, was created. Jingler is perfect for Christmas and in parties in which there are many strangers.

1) Scramble: "It" is blindfolded (see white scarf in basket) and turned around several times to become disoriented. Players scatter. They can make all the noise they want, taunting "it" to try to catch them if they can, but then they have to scamper when "it" lunges for them.

When "it" catches a victim, they must then place their gloved hands on the face and guess the person's identity. If they're wrong, they have to pay a forfeit (see list of forfeits at end of chapter).

2) Statues: "It" is blindfolded and turned around as above. Players scatter and then stand perfectly still and silent as "it" comes to find them.

When "it" finds a victim, they must then place their gloved hands on the face and guess the person's identity. If they're wrong, they have to pay a forfeit (see list of forfeits).

3) Jingler: "It" is blindfolded and turned around. Players scatter and stand still, but one player holds the set of jingle bells (see basket). "It" has to catch the person with the bell as the bell is tossed from player to player around the room.

4. Questions and Answers

In the straw box are a set of questions and a set of answers (see straw box in basket). Men form a half circle; women form another half circle. Give the questions to the men and the answers to the women or vice versa. A gentleman asks the question on top of the set. The lady answers with the answer on the top of her set. They then pass the set to the next person in line.

5. If You Love Me, Dearest, Smile

Everyone forms a circle. "It" stands in the middle and approaches a member of the opposite sex. They ask "If you love me, dearest, smile." The person must reply without a hint of a smile, "I love you, dearest, but I just can't smile." "It" goes around until someone breaks. Then that person is "it" and stands in the circle, etc.

6. Charades (another Victorian favorite, different than the modern version)

In the china holder are provided a number of 19th century words to act out via charades.

Victorians performed charades by acting out the syllables. For example, if the word is "sacramental," it could be broken into "sack," "ram" and "mental." They can let the audience know how many syllables the word contains by holding out fingers.

"Sack" could be acted out with Santa Clause carrying a sack. "Ram" with someone acting as though they're trying to hold a ram, and "mental" by something like the statue of "The Thinker." After acting out the syllables, "It" needs to act out the whole word (by, for instance, pretending to be a minister at the altar).

7. Adverbs

The person designated "It" must leave the room. Players then choose an adverb, such as "mournfully," "happily," "quietly," etc. that they will act out when "It" returns. It returns and may feel free to ask the players to perform a chore like singing a nursery rhyme. The player must perform the nursery rhyme according to the adverb chosen. All the other players must continue to act out the adverb. It can keep asking for performances until he/she guesses the adverb.

8. Crambo

"It" leaves the room, and the players chose a word. Let's say the word is "fickle." When "It" returns, one player must give "It" a hint by giving him/her a word that rhymes with fickle, i.e., "pickle."

Now it gets interesting.

"It" will ask one player whether the word is, say, tickle, NOT by asking straight out but by forming a question about the word in mind. "It" will ask, "is it something that someone does by holding one's fingers to another person's side and moving them about quickly?" The player who has had the question put to them must respond, "No, the word is not tickle."

This continues until "It" guesses the word, OR... if "It" is really good, he or she will create question for a word the player can't guess. Then the player winds up being "It."

9. Botticelli

"It" takes on the persona of a famous 19th century person. The players may ask this "famous" person 20 questions to find out who they are. "Are you alive?" "Are you a male?" What will make this fun is becoming a person who would be alive in the mid-nineteenth century.

10. The Endless Story

A "Master Time-keeper" is designated. He holds a bell. Someone begins a story - any story with any characters. They tell their tale for one minute, and then the Master Time-keeper rings the bell. The next person in the circle must continue the story, even if it was stopped in the middle of a sentence. Game continues until they come full circle. The person who began the tale will now have exactly one minute to come up with a successful ending which includes all the pieces of the story that have been described by all the various players. If he/she cannot wrap things up in one minute, they pay a forfeit to be determined by The Master Time-keeper.

The Master Time-keeper can also decide the summary was inadequate and thereby cause the last player to forfeit.

11. Detective

Players form a circle. A "thief" is chosen and sent out of the room. Now a "detective is chosen." A handkerchief is cast down into the middle of the circle. Everyone stands perfectly still as the thief is called back in. The thief must now steal the handkerchief and escape from the circle before the detective catches him. ONLY the detective can move. No one can obstruct the thief's exit but the detective.

If the thief succeeds, the detective pays a forfeit.

If the detective succeeds, then the thief pays a forfeit.

12. Pinch, No Smiling

Players form a circle. Each person in the circle holds out their right arm and pinches (not hard) the nose of the person to their right. The circle must be held this way with no laughter. The first one to laugh pays a forfeit.

13. Hot or Cold

"It" leaves the room. Players choose some task "It" must do upon returning (i.e., sit in a particular chair. Twirl about. Just keep it simple). When "It" returns, he/she must begin to perform whatever actions they can think of. The other players will then say "hot" or "cold," depending on how close they are to performing the chosen action.

14. The Post

All players except a designated "Postal Clerk" ("It") sit in two rows of chairs that face each other. Each player chooses the name of a local village town or city. The Postal Clerk writes down the names. When the Postal Clerk calls out something like "The Post is going between Harmony and Hillsboro," the players with those names must change places. Postal Clerk will try to take the seat of an absent person.

When the Postal Clerk shouts, "The general post is going out!" everyone must scramble for a new seat. Anyone left out becomes the new Postal Clerk.

15. The Barnyard

Everyone but the designated storyteller is assigned a barn yard animal. They'll create a story about a farmer and his animals. Every time an animal is called, the player assigned that animal has to make the sound. When the word, "barnyard" is said, everyone has to make their animal noises. A fast-talking storyteller can create barnyard chaos in no time.

Any player who misses his/her cue has to pay a forfeit.

16. The Coach

Similar to the barnyard, everyone in the circle chooses the name of part of a coach: window, step, seat, coachman, harness, horses, door, shotgun, baggage, trunk, wheel, etc.

Storyteller tells the tale of stagecoach. When a part is mentioned, the person must stand up, turn around, and sit back down. When the word, "coach" is used, everyone has to stand up, turn around and sit back down.

Anyone who misses a cue pays a forfeit.

17. Ten Fine Birds

Players form a circle. The leader (the person holding this paper) begins the game saying, "A good fat hen." Now everyone goes around the circle repeating just that phrase. When it comes back to the leader, the leader says, "Two ducks and a good fat hen," and again this goes around the circle.

3. Three squawking wild geese

4. Four plump partridges

5. Five pouting pigeons

6. Six long-legged cranes

7. Seven green parrots

8. Eight screeching owls

9. Nine ugly turkey-buzzards

10. Ten bald eagles.

The first one to forget part of the sequence must pay a forfeit.

18. Hunt the Slipper

Players form a circle around "It." A slipper is removed and passed behind the backs of the players in the circle while "It" closes their eyes and repeats three times, "Cobbler, cobbler, mend my shoe. Get it done by half-past two." When "It" finishes the third time, the slipper must stop moving. "It" then has three chances to guess who's got the slipper. If they're wrong all three times, they have to pay a forfeit. If they're correct, the person holding the slipper becomes "It."

19. Riddles

Two brothers we are,

Great burdens we bear,

By which we are bitterly pressed.

In truth we may say,

We are full all the day,

But empty when we go to rest.

(shoes)

My first carries my second,

My third carries them both,

And my whole is a useful accomplishment.

(horsemanship)

My first marks time,

My second spends it,

And my whole tells it.

(watchman)

My whole's a term the world directs,

The use of to the female sex;

Dismiss a letter and you'll find,

The first that lived of human kind;

Dismiss another and you'll discern,

What causes mill wheels to turn;

Again dismiss one, and you'll see,

The fist tense of the verb 'to be,'

And last of all you'll read my name,

Backward or forward still the same.

(madam)

What is the difference between a man in deep thought and King Henry VIII?

(One is a fat King and the other is a thin-king)

How many sides has a plum pudding?

(Two - inside and outside)

Why is a dog like a tree?

(They both lose their bark when they're dead)

What should you keep after you have given it to another?

(Your word)

What is a thing to brush the warm off of you?

(Fan)

Why is a woman's heart like the moon?

(It changes constantly, but it always has a man in it)

What are the names of these five fine fellows:

A hearty gentleman (Sir-loin)

A positive gentleman (Cer-tain)

A suspicious gentleman (Sur-mise)

A cowardly gentleman (Sur-render)

A lucky gentleman (Sur-prise)

To create a riddle, choose a name from the players and make a sentence around it. Let everyone figure out the name, i.e., "Mistletoe is terribly dangerous, wouldn't you say?" (answer: Dan)

20. Christmas:

a. Readings of classics such as "'Twas the Night Before Christmas" or the Dickens' classic, "The Cricket on the Hearth" will set a proper mood.

b. Christmas Carols are always in vogue. Appropriate 19th century carols include: "O Christmas Tree," "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing," "The Holly and the Ivy," "Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming," "Deck the Halls," "A Wassailing Song," "The First Noel," "Good King Wenceslas," "It Came Upon the Midnight Clear," "God Rest Ye Merry Gentleman," "We Wish You A Merry Christmas," and "Silent Night." But sometimes the words have changed since the 19th century; for an evening of historically accurate fun, give the original words to "Silent Night" a whirl:

Peaceful night! Hallowed night!

All around, sleep profound,

Whilst the happy and privileg'd pair

Watch the wonderful infant with care,

Sunk in heav'nly repose,

Sunk in heav'nly repose.

Peaceful night! Hallowed night!

Shepherd's first, tending sheep,

Angels' songs with wonder hear,

Sounding loud from far and near,

Jesus the Savior is come!

Jesus the Savior is come!

Peaceful night! Hallowed night!

Son of God, O what love,

Is in every feature portray'd!

Thou to us salvation art made,

Jesus the Savior of man!

Jesus the Savior of man!

c. Father Christmas: To round off a truly Victorian Christmas party, don't forget to include Father Christmas (also known as St. Nicholas but not yet referred to as Santa Claus). He wore a long red robe trimmed in fur, his hat was often decorated with a fresh sprig of holly, and, of course, he had a long, white beard. Father Christmas brought sticks and coals to the "bad" boys and girls" and gifts and candies to the good ones. Father Christmas visited families most often on Christmas Eve.

d. The Christmas Tree: Introduced to Victorian Society by Queen Victoria, the Christmas tree (brought over to England by Prince Albert in 1840) soon became a necessity in the parlors of polite society. Christmas Eve was the time in which most families lit the candles on the tree for the first time, and a Christmas Eve party gave its presentation all the more brilliance. Whenever possible, the lighting ritual was performed in secret and included tying little gifts on to the branches. When ready, the hosts would throw open their parlor doors and properly awed their guests with the shimmering vision. Children then approached the tree with hope that one of the little gifts nestled in the branches had their name written upon it.

e. Plays: Typically, Victorians went to Fairy Tales for inspiration. Cinderella was ever the favorite, followed by Pinnochio. Children were often taken to see a Christmas Play on Christmas Eve, leaving the adults at home to make their own entertainment, but, if a party included children, children were of course included in the plays.

Lay out a few key props, such as a Santa Claus hat and sack, candy and a few nightgowns, and let them put together their own version of "The Night Before Christmas." Merriment is bound to ensue.

If anyone knew how to "Keep Christmas" well, as Dickens put it, it was the Victorian family enjoying a party of their own making.

FORFEITS

The one who holds a forfeit must have it redeemed by accomplishing one of the following (the Master or Mistress of Ceremonies will choose one or be so kind as to allow the one holding a forfeit to choose for themselves):

1. Kiss the hand of anyone in the room.

2. Ask three persons in turn, "If I were a parrot, what would you have me say?" They will answer with a sentence that you must repeat in a "Polly-want-a-cracker" parrot voice.

3. Three players are allowed to ask you a question to which you may only answer "yea" or "nay." The trick is that you must give the answers before the questions are asked!

4. Remove your shoes, stand upon a chair and adopt whatever statuary pose the company commands you until such time the company grows tired of the sport.

5. An Eye for an Ear - Hold your right ear with your left hand, then switch to hold your left ear with your right hand. You must increase the speed until you become unable to do much more than slap yourself silly.

6. Friend - Walk around the circle of other players and give each of them a nice, friendly smile. This is more difficult than you might imagine...

7. Hop around the edge of the room on one foot while holding your nose.

8. Hop around the edge of the room imitating an animal chosen by the players.

9. Repeat a tongue-twister 10 times quickly.

10. Recite The Pledge of Allegiance using a foreign accent of your choosing.

11. If the party is at Christmas-time, stand under the mistletoe until someone deigns to kiss you.

To create the most simple of Victorian outfits, ladies should find off-the-shoulder dresses with full gathered skirts over hoops, and gentlemen should get for themselves anything resembling a swallow tail coat.

One can always simplify matters by making the event a masquerade ball. Queen Victoria revived the concept of a "Masque Ball" in the 1850s for the purpose of reviving certain English industries, so it would be perfectly appropriate to go that route. However, if you want to experience the essence of true Victorian living, you will opt for hoop skirts and tails.

LADIES

The most basic costuming can, of course, be found at your local costume shop. Scarlet and Rhett are a staple in the costume industry, but, of course, two costumes does not a party make. The Victorian era encompasses the time period of Victoria's reign, from 1837 to 1901, and a ball can certainly be created from any one of those decades.

With this country's interest in Civil War reenactment, it is easier to re-create a Civil War-era ball than one set in, say, the 1870s (where ladies' bustles and trains made dancing ever more challenging). Thus Inquire Within chooses to focus on the re-creation of a mid-nineteenth century ball.

If there are Civil War reenactor groups in your area, they can be relied upon to tell you where you might forage for the rental or purchase of Civil War costumes. It is perfectly acceptable for a lady to wear a fine day dress from the Civil War period. She does not necessarily require an off-the-shoulder ball gown (although, admittedly, off-the-shoulder is a lot more fun).

Full petticoats or tulle petticoats can effect the look of a hoop, but ladies should be encouraged to find the real thing (who would want to take the swing out of Scarlett's skirt?).

Hoops can be purchased or rented from bridal shops, especially large department store bridal shops. Sometimes one finds Aunt Agnes has one tucked away in her attic, or cousin Myrtle was forced to purchase one as a bridesmaid. If you can find a hoop, do so. It will help you feel the part all the more, and, as any actor will tell you, to really feel the part, accurate costuming is an absolute necessity.

Catologs such as Amazon Dry goods have made-to-order clothing, which includes hoops (but keep in mind the time factor). 

Amazon Dry Goods

2218 East 11th Street

Davenport, IA 52803 

Of course, those who sew can recreate these garments by using patterns from such places as Past Patterns. By the by, as a point of manners, one should never require accurate costuming of one's guests. Time and expense can easily cap-size a boatload of good intentions. Thus, the costume list should always be "suggested," and those that aren't able to meet it (but are dying to participate in a Victorian ball) should never be slighted for appearing in modern dress.

But, if you are ready to make a dash toward historical accuracy, there is good news: although there were 20 different dress styles for every occasion and 100 books to tell you which should be worn to what, the rules of dress for a mid 19th century ball were rather static.

Even better news is that even in this century it isn't too difficult to collect the appropriate items needed to represent the fashion of that day.

You will need:

One ball gown

One hoop (with over petticoats, if possible)

Dancing slippers

Shawl or wrap

Jewelry

A headpiece

A reticule (drawstring or other purse)

One fan

Optional:

A tussy-mussy (small bouquet)

A dance card (provided by host)

accurate undergarments such as corsets

accurate overgarments such as berthes (see description below)

The fabric and trim of the ball dress fabrics included fine cottons (like tarlatan: an open-weave muslin or layers of lace) and silk, with gauze and tulle for overskirts and gathers. The weaves were most often satin, taffeta, brocade, or damask. Trims were of lace in cream or black, silk flowers, ribbons and pleated or draped gauze. You've seen Harper's Bazaar fashion plates; please remember that they were like the runway models of today. Few people wanted to dress as excessively as a fashion plate, and photographic evidence and the ball gowns in residence at the Loudoun Museum shows that southern women in particular knew when to quit.

The dress itself came in three parts: a skirt, a bodice top and a berthe. The bodice usually had a point below waist in front and back, and it was laced up the back or closed with hooks and eyes. Sleeves were short and puffed. The bodice was barely off the shoulder (country ball gowns were even more modestly set). Warning: strapless dresses were not worn, and, once you've danced a 19th century polka, I believe you'll understand why.

In fact, if you can secure a 19th century-style corset, you will be happier.

Back to the ballgown: a berthe (a separate decorative piece which circled the upper part of the bodice for the sake of modesty) was attached to the bodice with straight pins. Berthes are optional, because most country ball gowns did not bother with them. The lines of a country ball gown were simple and the ornaments few, especially here in "The South." Southern ladies, save perhaps a few plantation mistresses, equated the term elegance with simplicity of form.

If you are able to procure a hoop, do, please, remember to wear a petticoat or slip under it. Heaven forbid you trip and fall during the Virginia Reel, but, the truth is, it's been known to happen... and to the best of people.

Speaking of the best of people, click here if you'd like a word on the proper dress for a 19th century Scottish Ball.

Dancing slippers of the 19th century were usually made of silk with a thin leather sole. The toe was elongated and came to a squared-off point. This toe was often stuffed (the better to avoid the pain of left-footed dancing partner) and the shoe was sometimes embroidered. For a modern dance, it is best to simply find a pair of comfortable, flat-heeled shoes. Chinese slippers are a good bet and a good buy.

Evening headdress for young ladies was usually a wreath of silk or fresh flowers, decorated with ribbons, lace and/or feathers. Hair was always parted in the center with curls or fulness at the ear. The rest is brought to the back in a chignon (bun), sausage curls or braids.

Short white cotton or kid gloves were worn almost exclusively. Colored gloves were possible but not encouraged. Crochet or lace gloves were not used.

For young ladies, jewelry was most often a string of pearls about the neck or a gold chain with a cross (sometimes these were worn together. Another popular fashion was the velvet or grosgrain ribbon tied in a bow at the neck, often with a pendant or cross hanging from the bow. Precious gems were for the older generation, and women of means often decked themselves with elaborate necklaces.

Ladies of every age seemed to prefer the look of drop pearl earrings to any other. Bracelets were ever popular, but their size was an anomaly: although every thing else about Victorian ball costume seemed delicate, bracelets were extremely large, thick and downright gaudy. A pretty version of an appropriately thick bracelet is a series of 3 or 4 strands of pearls. Thinner bracelets were also worn but were always seen traveling in groups.

The fan was typically worn on the right hand. Do not neglect to bring a fan to a ball. No matter how cold it is outside, both the costume and the dancing will conspire against you, and you will be glad you thought to bring it. If a dance card is provided, it is worn on the left wrist. Do not use your dance card in place of the fan you left at home; the motion might be construed as a desperate attempt to draw forth a dance partner. Shawls and reticules (your purse) are left in the room next to the ballroom for those sad moments in which you must pause and rest. Like the fan, a shawl or wrap seems grossly unimportant at times, but when it is needed it is sorely needed.

Lastly, if at any time during these proceedings a fairy godmother appears to you, ignore all the above and do exactly as she tells you.

AND GENTLEMEN...

Throughout the 19th century, formal dress was top hat and tails. Black evening coat, white vest, white shirt, white tie. Your nearby Tuxedo rental shop can provide these with very little trouble. Gentlemen's fancy dress hasn't changed much in the last century and a half.

However, for truly accurate Civil War-era costume, unless one lived in a major city or occupied the upper shelf of the upper crust, gentlemen often wore their best frock coat to a party. With it they wore their best vest, which was not necessarily white, and a black "stock tie."

As stated previously, gentlemens' full formal dress hasn't noticeably changed in over than 100 years. If you are going for a mid-nineteenth century look, however, you will need to secure the following:

You will need:

Swallowtail coat and matching pants (preferably black)

Vest (preferably white; next choice: black)

White shirt or tuxedo shirt

Stock tie (rectangle of white linen or silk, approximately 8" by 20" to 30")

Dress shoes

white gloves

Optional:

Watch with chain

handkerchief

diamond stud for tie

top hat

cape or great coat (the one set with a smaller cape around the shoulder)

dance card (yes, gentlemen often had them, too - how else were they expected to remember all those commitments!)

A swallowtail coat can be created from a normal jacket. The jacket must have a vent in the middle of the back of the coat. On the front of the coat, mark the waistline with chalk. Lay the coat on a table. Cut straight across the waist line, curve as you meet the side seam of the coat and head straight down. The back of the coat remains long. Don't throw away what you just coat. Those will be the tails of the swallowtail coat.

Sew the right front "tail" to the back left flap of the coast, and the left front to the back right. Sew seam binding tape around the rough outside edge (see below), and voila! In the relative dark of a ballroom, it will pass for a Swallowtail coat!

Vests of the mid-nineteenth century did not have points as they do today. The cut was straight across or slightly bowed downward at the belly. Modern vests are easy to modify (again, seam binding will clean up the rough edges). Watches with chains went from side to side across the belly (there were pockets on either side of the vest buttons). Most modern vests are provided with a watch pocket but nothing with which to attach a chain. Pinning it will suffice (as the swallowtail coat hides the side of the vest). Vests usually came down 1 to 2 inches below the swallowtail coat. Swallowtail coats, by the mid-1860's, were not buttoned but left open.

There is an easy way to turn a modern white shirt into a Victorian shirt. Simply fold the corner points of the collar down (pointing toward the under arms) and iron them that way. The collar will be brought up when worn, and, of course, the pointed corners will remain down. The stock tie will be wrapped around and secured, and the points will hang over the top edge of stock tie looking VERY right and proper.

Stock ties can be done up in various ways, depending on their size. Before you decide on the size, you need, experiment with the following ties on a scrap piece of material approximately 8" by 30". When you've decided on a type of tie, cut the scrap (as needed) and measure it again. Hem or have the edges hemmed, and you're done.

THE MILITARY BALL

To avoid the need for swallowtail coats completely, hold a Civil War Military ball. The gentlemen can rent a uniform from the local costume shop or contact Civil War reenactment groups for information on rentals or their local costume shops.

But, let the gentlemen remember, this is a dance and not a competition. Weapons are to be left at the door. Civil War soldiers on both sides of the Mason Dixon wore their sword belts, but left their pistols at the door and leaned their swords against the ballroom walls during the dance.

Again, the accuracy of costume for such an evening will be up to the interest and experience of each participant. For example, everyone should be polite to the gentleman who shows up in Marine Dress White; he'll be thrilled he's still able to fit in the old thing.

Dance sets (or settes) usually included four dances but could contain as many as 12. An 1866 dance card showed twelve dances occurring, then an intermission, followed by the last twelve dances. Other ballroom guides suggest 21 dances, with supper causing "a convenient break after the twelfth dance" (The Ballroom Guide, A Handy Manual, London & NY, 1860, pp 18-21). But, as your guests may not be used to staying up to 3 or 4 in the morning, you may wish a more modified schedule.

To create an evening of dance that lasts three to four hours, punctuated by parlor games and/or toasts, the following program is suggested:

DANCE AND THE DANCEMASTER

For a simple evening, you may procure a tape or CD of parlor music such as Stephen Foster tunes, instrumental folk music or a collection of Civil War songs. For a copy of a CD called "The Civil War Ballroom," featuring a similar line up, contact the musical group Spare Parts.

But if you are taking the plunge toward historical accuracy, you will need musicians and music to recreate the sound as it was meant to be heard. Nineteenth century musicians were usually culled from among friends and families, for only the very wealthy could secure the services of professional musicians. If you have a band but no music, purchase Ballads & Songs of the Civil War by Jerry Silverman, Mel Bay Pub., Inc. (1993) or The Civil War Songbook, Dover Publications, Inc. (1977)

And no matter how humble the party, if there was dancing there was found a Dancemaster (sometimes known as the Ballet Master), be he a teacher from the local Ladies Seminary or simply the head of the household. A dancemaster is needed during modern day balls, because most nineteenth century dances, although not difficult, do require a bit of direction.

Local universities, colleges, and historic sites that feature living history are three places one might look for a dance master. Ball room dance instructors can sometimes be talked into learning the traditional dance steps; one can also approach Civil War reenactment groups to see if they have connections to a dancemaster. If all these methods fail, you may appoint yourself dancemaster by taking up books on the subject and applying yourself to study. You can find "Hillgrove's Ballroom Guide and Practical Dancer," (re-published by Amazon Drygoods, 2218 East 11th Street, Davenport, IA 52803), but the very best way to learn the dances is through a dance master.

If you have no luck with any of the above, by all means simply polka and waltz the evening away; you will be more than partly accurate in doing so. 

CHOOSING THE BALLROOM

Most dances of the Victorian era were formed in lines or circles of dancers. The Promenade or Grande March and the various reels and schottisches are all line or circle dances. Exceptions include quadrilles (which require a square dance-sized space for four couples), waltzes and Polkas (which have the guests circle around the dance floor at will). But the preponderance of dances were formed into lines of couples and it is upon this assumption we will base our numbers.

In an 1857 how-to book under the heading of "how to treat your wife," the entry reads, "First, get a wife." By the same token, to calculate your ball room needs, first count your guests.

For a hoop-skirted event, each pair of dancers will need approximately sixteen feet from side-to-side in order to maneuver, and approximately four feet of space between themselves and the next couple in line. Generally speaking a 40x40 foot room will comfortably hold fourteen couples (two lines of seven couples each). Add ten feet more on one end for your musicians (unless, of course, your music comes from a small rectangular box whose cord plugs into a wall).

Food in the dancing room is discouraged. It wasn't done in the 19th century, and the reason becomes obvious when you participate in a ball. The dancing room becomes quite warm, and participants find themselves grateful to be able to move to another room for a breath of fresh air (ladies' fans were not simply a flirtation device). While the ball room does not require chairs, the room containing edible delicacies and the ever-present punch bowl should (see Chapter Six for period food suggestions).

A restored 19th century home is an ideal spot for a ball, and one that contains an original ballroom is to be treasured. But the good news is, Victorian dances were most often held in the largest room (or rooms) of anyone's home. Very few people had access to ball rooms, but it never stopped them from having a ball. They moved the furniture, rolled up the carpet and set to with enthusiasm.

In truth, given enough manpower and enough flowers, any room, even that of a dour school auditorium, can be transformed into 19th century magic for an evening. Candle-light weaves its own special magic; oil lamps are gentle (but they give off a very distinctive, if historically accurate, smell); a chandelier of electric candles is the next best thing to old-fashioned lighting. Of course, finding a room that is old to begin with will make the choice of lighting or decorations that much easier, and the result infinitely more effective.

The 1857 tome Inquire Within; 3,7000 Facts for the People contains this admonition: "It is asserted, and we believe with some truth, that singing is a corrective of the too common tendency to pulmonic complaints. Dr. Rush, an eminent physician, observes on this subject: "The Germans are seldom afflicted with consumption; and this, I believe, is in part occasioned by the strength which their lungs acquire by exercising them in vocal music, for this constitutes an essential branch of their education. [A] music master... informed me that he had known several instances of persons who were strongly disposed to consumption, who were restored to health by the exercise of their lungs in singing."

When it came to spiritual and physical improvement, music was an excellent format, but, when it was a question of pure entertainment, a party was expected to look to the ladies.

The how-to guide, True Politeness, suggests a young lady should "Never exhibit any particular anxiety to sing or play." In one of many such references, Civil War Etiquette: Martine's Handbook & Vulgarisms in Conversation, states, "If you are asked by the lady of the house, at an evening party, to sing, and you can really do so well, comply at once..." It was up to the lady to decide what she might sing or play, as long as she avoided "... songs descriptive of masculine passion or sentiments." Men were necessary to this process only in their need to stand by and "arrange the music stool, and turn over the leaves."

It is a delightful addition to any evening of ballroom dance to have a lady sing or play a ballad, a folk tune, a Civil War melody, or a sweet Stephen Foster piece. There is nothing closer to a true state of time travel than to listen to the very tunes our ancestors heard and realize as we listen our emotions must be the very same as those who heard this same music more than a hundred years before; it could well create the unforgettable moment in an unforgettable evening.

Toasts are another form of between-set entertainments. They can be given in honor of the host and hostess, in honor of the lovely ladies present, in honor of the chivalrous gentleman present, to the cook, etc., etc. Humor is always welcome, but the sentiment should always be heart-felt and true.

Scottish toasts are famous for their comedy and their tragedy. Here are but two of that ilk:

Here's to them that like us,

Them that think us swell,

And here's tae them that hate us,

Let's pray for them as well.

Or the simplified, "May we be happy and our enemies know it!"

On a more serious note,

May the hill rise to meet you,

And may the mountain be always over the crest,

And may the God that you believe in,

Hold you in the palm of his hand.

We have the Industrial Revolution to thank for the plethora of manners that struck English and then American society in the early 19th century.

After the wealth brought about by industry, a common English shop keeper could become as rich as a Lord. If this fortunate fellow found a good tailor, he could dress himself like a Lord. The English upper crust soon realized to its horror that if the fellow learned enough of proper manners, he was going to be able to pass himself off as a Lord and join them at the supper table, and, worse yet, begin to make acquaintances with their daughters.

A popular English novel of 1853 cattily complained, "the housemaid now dresses better (finer at all events) than her mistress did twenty years ago, and it is almost impossible to recognize working people when they are in their Sunday dresses."

And so English society quickly began creating rules, rule upon rule around proper etiquette, all for the purpose of excluding that uppity shopkeeper from their social circle. One simply had to be learning these rules from birth in order to perform them properly.

An example of the mind-boggling maze of English etiquette can be found in something as simple as the doffing of a hat: A gentleman should not leave his hat in the hallway of a house but should keep it on his head until he enters the drawing room where he may remove it and set it on either a chair or a table. Only members of the family may leave their hats in the hallway. But when the visitor leaves, the hat should not return to his head until he reaches the hallway.

This is but one example. For every occasion there was a proper dress or suit to wear and certain words, phrases and manners to affect. There was a proper form of etiquette to handle everything from christening to the carrying of caskets, and, needless to say, there were a host of manners to learn in order to succeed in the ballroom.

Luckily, we are Americans! And nineteenth century Americans adopted only as many forms of English etiquette as they thought absolutely necessary. After all, shop keepers had already become a part of the upper crust of our society and were welcomed to it. America was proud of the fact that a shopkeeper could act like a Lord and that the housemaid could dress like her mistress. An August 1857 article from Harper's Bazaar entitled "Are We A Polite People?" tells us, " Costume with us knows no distinction of class, and were it not for the deeper tint of health of the cheeks and a stouter development of natural proportions, it might often be hard to distinguish between the housemaid and the mistress."

Victorian Americans were stridently democratic in our manners and our dress, as well as our politics. It was considered the right of every American to learn the manners of upper curst society if they wished. The same Harper's Bazaar article states, "When a gentleman is announced, we unhesitatingly prepare to receive him in the drawing room, and take it for granted that he is quite up to the drawing room standards. We all in this country claim admission to the drawing room and accordingly it behooves it to know something of drawing room manners and to conduct ourselves accordingly."

Victorian Americans had a democratic right to learn manners, and we are accorded those same rights when we attempt to recreate a Victorian ball.

Paring the rules of etiquette down to an American level, we have the following (these can be read to your group in a morning practice session which includes dance), or they can be distributed beforehand.

THE ESCORT & THE DANCE PARTNER

If a gentleman has escorted a lady to the ball, it is common courtesy for him to take the first dance with her. Unlike today's dances, it was considered rude to dance with the same partner more than two times in an evening. Balls were a way of socializing with one's entire community, and therefore one was expected to mingle and mix.

The host and hostess will decide whether to make this an issue. By the way, "cutting in" was not a Victorian experience; once a dance began with one partner, you were not to change partners unless the dance master required you to do so.

If a host and hostess would like to encourage people to get new partners, one dance is particularly can be quite useful: a waltz referred to as "Chassez d'Amour." Now and then during the dance, the host rings a glass with a spoon, and, at the sound, everyone on the dance floor must find a new partner.

Another game involves a top hat. Ladies are requested to remove a personal item, such as a fan or a glove, and place it in the hat. The hat is passed above the gentleman's heads, and they must reach up and pluck out an item. The lady's item is returned to her, and she becomes their dance partner.

REQUESTING A DANCE

In requesting a dance from a lady, by 1857 the word "honor" became more important than the term "pleasure," i.e., "Will you honor me with your hand for the quadrille?" as opposed to, "Will you give me the pleasure of dancing the quadrille?"

THE ESSENCE OF THE DANCE

Once a lady has accepts a gentleman's invitation to dance, he should escort her to the dance floor. As the music begins, the lady will curtsy (referred to in the Victorian era as a "courtesy") and the gentleman will bow. If they are grouped with another couple or couples for the purpose of a Spanish Waltz or Quadrille, the couple should bow and curtsy to those that stand directly across from them.

In commencing the dance, do not mistake your partner for a piece of rope that you should drag her across the dance floor, nor mistake her for a block of wood that you should grip her. Simply guide her. Specific to a gentleman's form of dance, Lord Chesterfield once wrote his son, "...the greatest advantage of dancing well is, that is necessarily teaches you to present yourself, to sit, stand, and walk genteelly; all of which are of real importance to a man of fashion."

And in the dance, the Martine's Book of Etiquette, one of the bibles of 1860s manners, tells us: "Do not kick and caper about, nor sway your body to and fro; dance only from the hips downwards."

Gentlemen should cup his hand hand high, and ladies should rest the tips of their fingers in the cup, in order to make rotations around one's partner a matter of grace.

AFTER THE DANCE

The customary bow and curtsy should be given both before and after the dance.

After the dance is ended, a young lady should not thank her partner. If you'll remember, it was an honor for him to have the dance. Thus, there is no need for thanks. A simple bow of the head is appropriate. The partner should then escort her to a chair or to the refreshments.

... If to a chair, the gentleman should offer to stay and carry on light conversation until partners are "made up" for the next dance.

... If to the refreshments, a gentleman offers a lady punch and whatever dainties she might like from the table and then carries on light conversation with her until partners are "made up" for the next dance.

PARLEZ VOUS " FAN?"

A note is warranted concerning the infamous "language of the fan." This so-called "language" was actually a promotional gimic created in the late 19th century by a Parisian fan-maker named Duvelleroy. With every fan sold, he gave out a sheet of paper containing the "language of the fan" which turned out to be an English version of a German version of a Spanish guide. He apparently added to the list as he saw fit, just for fun of it.

The truth is, a formal "language of the fan" simply didn't exist in the middle of the 19th century, and there is doubt as to whether Duvelleroy's list was ever actually used socially. But, having said there is no formal language, let it also be said the fan was definitely used for communication. Hiding one's face behind a fan and then peeking out over its edge cannot be construed as anything but a flirtation, putting a fan to one's cheek (and nearer to the lips), a subtle invitation, and snapping it shut during conversation should be a fairly obvious sign of irritation. These methods were ever in use by our fore-mothers, and I think our fore-fathers understood them well enough.

However, if you want to go and look up this "fan language" and try using it, by all means do (you will have fun, no doubt). But the fact remains, young ladies did very well for themselves long before Messieur Duvelleroy took up their cause.

NAMECARDS

Upon entering a home, each person delivers a namecard to the fellow at the door, or to a small tray (preferably silver) set near the door. Unless it is a small party, the host and hostess are not expected to be the ones opening the door all evening, and thus the cards announce the guests' presence.

Namecards can be created during the morning practice session with cards provided, or guests can use their own business cards. Cards were enormously important in the Victorian era. One didn't leave home without them. Visitations back and forth between friends and neighbors followed a ritual of requirements, including the leaving of cards (this was especially important when you had done your best to make the required return visit and the party was not at home. Your card was proof of your good intentions). New Year's Day was "Card Day" for Victorians. This was the day gentlemen were supposed to make their rounds, visiting for a short time virtually every single young lady they knew, and a young lady contented herself with her stack of name cards at the end of New Year's day. It certainly beats making resolutions one never keeps...

DANCE CARDS

Dance cards may be provided to the ladies to be set dangling from their wrists... like so many paper carrots. A dance card, a fan and/or a handkerchief are the only items a young lady should have with her during a dance. Dances may be signed up for before the evening dance begins or before each dance in turn. A gentlemen need not take the time to write in his entire name; his initials are most appropriate.

On the cover of the program one should find the date of the ball and the place at which the ball will commence. Dance cards make a lovely memento of an evening. Other examples can be found at The Dance Card Museum.

Pencils with tassels can be had from party stores or ordered from party store catalogs (Stumps has a huge party catalogue: 1-800-351-PROM or 1-800-348-5084). You may also re-create corded pencils by purchasing golf pencils, drilling a small hole through the tops and stringing them through with thin cords.

Be certain to estimate the size of a lady's wrist and add three inches or so, so the card can easily be removed for signatures

Gentleman often also had their own copies of dancecards, making it easier to remember to whom one has committed a dance. Even 19th century gentlemen were not expected to remember 18 different dance partners (especially since convention made it impossible to dance with one lady more than twice). See this gentleman's dance card from 1866.

But if only the ladies have dance cards, it will fall to them to make themselves "convenient" to the gentleman whose initials are marked for the next dance.

It is also good for ladies and gentleman to keep a few dances open to the world of possibilities... or a much-needed rest.

A word aside to the ladies who will make it their goal to have their dance cards filled: no one likes a braggart.

ROLE PLAYING AND LIVING HISTORY

Role playing or living history are not encouraged for first time ball goers. There's plenty of acting to be done (such as, acting polite), and plenty to remember, without adding theatrics. However, it should be up to the host and hostess to decide whether to try these techniques.

If the host and hostess take to the idea of role-playing, they will encourage their guests to pick a favorite nineteenth century person to emulate for an evening. This can make for highly entertaining (and creative) conversation. One doesn't need to take on a specific person, either, but can enjoy being from a different part of the United States, or engaging in a 19th century career such as Carriage Making, etc.

If living history is your interest, your ball-goers will be encouraged to take on the full manners, conversational style, and knowledge of a person from the 19th century. A serious group can inform themselves through diaries, books, and living history reenactor magazines such as the Civil War Citizen's Companion or Civil War Lady to round out their "interpretations." There is much to recommend living history, both for the mind-expanding impact on the person attempting it, and the history lesson it gives to those who see it done (especially when it is done well). However, I must ask you to be careful. This can be a highly addictive and (like so many adult hobbies) expensive form of play.

To dabble in role play, you might wish to add one or two of the following aspects of a Victorian ball. If you are intent on performing accurate living history, you'll want to add them all:

TAKING REFRESHMENT

In taking refreshment, a chivalrous gentleman will make certain a lady never has to acquire food or beverage on her own, nor cross a ballroom alone, nor leave the ballroom unattended. In the 19th century, a young lady could lose her reputation by showing independence, and her reputation would determine her future status in the community. To quote a recent article in the reenactor's magazine, The Citizens' Companion, "Never allow a lady to get a chair herself, pick up a dropped item, or perform a service that a gentleman can do for her." If you would look with kindness on the 19th century view of women, I would ask you to think of these as protective measures inspired by gallantry rather than stifling boundaries inspired by male chauvinism, and, as a last resort, simply be grateful you were born in this century.

THE ART OF CONVERSATION

If you have danced well and you wish to converse with the partner in dance who has given you such keenly kinetic pleasure, it is well to note a few rules of the day. Never directly compliment a lady or gentleman (in other words, use many, many other words to speak your mind), and, from Martine's, we read, "Never ask a direct question under any circumstances." What do you make of that? The assumption was you may place your conversational partner in the awkward position of their not knowing the answer, or, worse, forcing them to provide you with an indelicate truth.

To give an example of the latter, a Victorian does not ask, "How is your brother today?" Instead they would say, "I hope your brother is quite well."

Let's apply the rule:

A gentleman asks a lady "And how is your brother today?" She is seen to grow pale, the emotion of the moment overwhelms her, and she suddenly cries out, "Dead!"

You see? I hope your brother is quite well? would make it possible to avoid such a conversational carriage wreck. "I hope your brother is quite well?" enables the lady to answer him, "One could hope such, sir, but such a hope would be made in vain..."

And, when in doubt, remember the Victorian proverb: "It is better to remain silent and be thought a fool than to open one's mouth and remove all doubt." 

And on that note, I bid you Adieu.

Meredith Bean McMath is an award-winning historian whose works include historic fiction novels, plays, documentaries, and living history presentations. A living history program of the above information presented at The National Trust's Oatlands Plantation in Leesburg, Virginia formed the basis of a documentary, "Having a Ball: Ballroom, Costume, Etiquette and Dance in the Midst of the Rebellion," which aired on The History Channel several times between 1998 and 2000. For a list of McMath's history videos or talks and presentations, please reference:

To contact the author, please press:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Civil War Era Etiquette: Martine's Handbook, R.L. Shep Pub. (1988 reprint of 1864 edition) Mendocino, CA

Civil War Ladies (Excerpts and Illustrations from Peterson's Magazine 1861 and 1864) R.L. Shep Publishers (1987) Mendocino, CA

Early Pleasures & Pastimes, Lise Gunby, Senior Editor, Crabtree Publishing Co. (1992) NY

Emyl Jenkins' Southern Hospitality, Emyl Jenkins, Crown Publishers Inc. (1994) New York

From Queen to Empress: Victorian Dress 1837-1877, Caroline Goldthorpe for The Metropolitan Museum of Art's 1988-89 exhibit, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (1988) New York

From the Ballroom to Hell: Grace and Folly in Nineteenth Century Dance, Elizabeth Aldrich, Northwestern Univ. Press (1991) Evanston, IL

The Complete Book of Ballroom Dancing, R.M. Stephenson & J. Iaccarino, Doubleday (1980) NY

Hillgrove's Ballroom Guide and Practical Dancer, published by Amazon Drygoods, 2218 East 11 St., Davenport, IA 52803

Scottish Tradition: A Collection of Scottish Folk Literature, David Buchan, Routledge & Kegan Paul (1984) London

Through the Looking Glass, Elizabeth Wilson & Lou Taylor, BBC Books (1989) London

Twenty Thousand Years of Fashion, Francois Boucher, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (1965) New York

Who Wore What, Women's Wear 1861-1865, Juanita Leisch , Thomas Publications (1995) Gettysburg, PA

The Writer's Guide to Everyday Life in the 1800s, Marc McCutcheon, Writer's Digest Books (1993) Cincinnati, Ohio

Original Sources:

"Arthur's Magazine: The Home Magazine" - July to December, 1855, T.S. Arthur & Co. (1855) Philadelphia

Inquire Within: 3,700 Facts for the People, Garrett, Dick & Fitzgerald (1857), NY

"Our Young Folks: An Illustrated Magazine for Boys and Girls," 1873, James R. Osgood & Company (1873), Boston

"Harper's Magazine," Vol. LX (Dec. 1879 to May 1880), Harper & Brothers, Publishers (1880), NY